-
Bisphenol A (BPA) is used in the synthesis of commercial plastics, including polycarbonates and epoxy resins, which are incorporated into a wide variety of consumer goods. Exposure to BPA was suspected to result in a variety of toxicities in the neurological, reproductive, metabolic, and immune system (1). Considering these potential undesirable effects, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) established a temporary tolerable daily intake (t-TDI) of 4 μg/kg body weight per day (2).
Abiding by the regulations on the production and restricted use of BPA in European Union, United States, China, and other countries, BPA in commercial products was gradually replaced by its analogues, such as bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol B (BPB), and bisphenol AF (BPAF). After being put into use, these bisphenolic compounds (BPs) were released into the environment and entered the food chain. A variety of foods (cereals, fruits, meats etc.) were found to contain BPS and other analogues. Studies have shown that the genotoxicity and estrogenic activity of these alternatives are like that of BPA (3-4).
The primary source of exposure to BPA for most people is through the diet from contaminated foodstuffs (5). Dietary exposure of BPA from the Canadian Total Diet Study (TDS) was evaluated in view of BPs in composite food samples (6). In China, BPA from the Fourth China TDS (2007) samples as well as BPA and several analogues from the Fifth China TDS (2010–2012) were analyzed and the estimated daily intakes (EDI) of these BPs were safe for general people (7-8). However, in past decades, China’s sustained development and progress have affected the lives of every resident. Under this circumstance, food consumption and contamination levels might have changed remarkably since China’s restriction of BPA in baby products and food contact materials implemented since 2011. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the Chinese daily exposure to BPs from the Sixth TDS (2016–2019) (9).
Levels of BPs in the Sixth China TDS were provided in Supplementary Tables S1–S4 and summarized in Table 1, where BPA was detected in 216 out of total 288 samples, with a concentration range of non-detected value (ND) to 20.0 µg/kg, among which the highest level occurred in cereals from Jiangsu Province. The mean concentrations of BPA from food categories ranged from 0.129 µg/kg (milk)–1.02 µg/kg (meat). BPS presented a rate of detection of 78.5%, accounting for 226 samples. The maximum level 67.1 µg/kg was attributed to a sample of meats from Fujian Province. While the second largest value is 16.6 μg/kg from a meat sample in Henan Province. BPF and BPAF were found in 8.33% and 27.1% of samples, with the maximum concentrations of 1.06 μg/kg and 1.75 μg/kg, respectively.
Category Parameter BPA BPS BPF BPAF Cereals Mean (μg/kg) 0.466 0.545 0.007 0.012 Medium (μg/kg) 0.256 0.128 ND ND Range (μg/kg) ND to 1.44 ND to 6.40 ND to 0.169 ND to 0.129 Detective rate (%) 91.7 83.3 4.2 29.2 Legumes and nuts Mean (μg/kg) 0.484 0.984 0.146 ND Medium (μg/kg) 0.255 0.707 ND ND Range (μg/kg) ND to 3.39 ND to 4.23 ND to1.06 ND Detective rate (%) 87.5 91.7 37.5 0 Potatoes Mean (μg/kg) 0.340 0.163 0.008 0.006 Medium (μg/kg) 0.271 0.147 ND ND Range (μg/kg) ND to 1.35 ND to 0.648 ND to 0.186 ND to 0.029 Detective rate (%) 95.8 91.7 4.2 29.2 Meats Mean (μg/kg) 1.024 5.827 0.106 0.026 Medium (μg/kg) 0.476 2.010 ND ND Range (μg/kg) ND to 5.82 ND to 67.1 ND to 0.279 ND to 0.530 Detective rate (%) 95.8 91.7 20.8 25 Eggs Mean (μg/kg) 0.180 0.130 ND 0.021 Medium (μg/kg) 0.169 0.042 ND 0.013 Range (μg/kg) ND to 0.544 ND to 0.636 ND ND to 0.061 Detective rate (%) 54.2 87.5 0 50 Aquatic foods Mean (μg/kg) 0.927 1.25 0.015 0.125 Medium (μg/kg) 0.689 0.621 ND 0.024 Range (μg/kg) 0.199 to 3.31 ND to 6.34 ND to 0.192 ND to 1.75 Detective rate (%) 100 95.8 8.3 79.2 Milk Mean (μg/kg) 0.129 0.022 ND 0.002 Medium (μg/kg) ND 0.008 ND ND Range (μg/kg) ND to <0.385 ND to 0.148 ND ND to 0.026 Detective rate (%) 41.7 29.2 0 12.5 Vegetables Mean (μg/kg) 0.347 0.343 0.015 0.010 Medium (μg/kg) 0.293 0.127 ND ND Range (μg/kg) ND to 1.09 0.020 to 1.81 ND to 0.190 ND to 0.041 Detective rate (%) 95.8 100 8.3 37.5 Fruits Mean (μg/kg) 1.68 0.315 0.032 0.023 Medium (μg/kg) 0.418 0.111 ND ND Range (μg/kg) ND to 20.0 0.026 to 1.71 ND to 0.449 ND to 0.175 Detective rate (%) 91.7 100 12.5 41.7 Sugar Mean (μg/kg) 0.909 0.034 0.011 0.006 Medium (μg/kg) 0.602 0.021 ND ND Range (μg/kg) 0.197 to 3.26 ND to 0.114 ND to 0.260 ND to 0.043 Detective rate (%) 91.7 70.8 4.2 20.8 Beverages and water Mean (μg/kg) 0.234 0.058 ND ND Medium (μg/kg) ND 0.013 ND ND Range (μg/kg) ND to 1.57 ND to 0.612 ND ND Detective rate (%) 20.8 50.0 0 0 Alcoholic beverages Mean (μg/kg) 0.161 0.081 ND ND Medium (μg/kg) ND 0.012 ND ND Range (μg/kg) ND to 0.610 ND to 1.54 ND ND Detective rate (%) 37.5 50 0 0 Total Mean (μg/kg) 0.546 1.17 0.023 0.019 Medium (μg/kg) 0.251 0.055 ND ND Detective rate (%) 75.3 78.5 8.33 27.1 Abbreviations: BPA=bisphenol A; BPS=bisphenol S; BPF=bisphenol F; BPAF=bisphenol AF; LOD=limits of detection; ND=non-detected value. Table 1. Occurrence of BPA and its analogues in different composite Total Diet Study samples.
The EDIs of BPA, BPS, BPF, and BPAF for an average male adult are given in Figure 1. For BPA, the highest exposure was found in Henan (56.9 ng/kg body weight per day), while the lowest was found in Jilin (5.74 ng/kg body weight per day). Mean exposure to BPA was estimated to be 18.1 ng/kg body weight per day, significantly below the t-TDI (4 μg/kg body weight per day) recommended by the EFSA (2). The EDI of BPS in the Sixth TDS for an average Chinese male adult was 22.2 ng/kg body weight per day. Jiangsu (120 ng/kg body weight per day) and Fujian (114 ng/kg body weight per day) posed the two highest exposures in this TDS; while the exposure in Jilin residents (0.559 ng/kg body weight per day) was the lowest. BPF and BPAF presented dietary exposures of 0.485 ng/kg body weight per day and 0.384 ng/kg body weight per day, respectively.
Figure 1.EDI of BPA, BPS, BPF, and BPAF among sampling PLADs from the Sixth TDS.
Abbreviations: BPs=bisphenolic compounds; EDI=estimated daily intakes; BPA=bisphenol A; BPS=bisphenol S; BPF=bisphenol F; BPAF=bisphenol AF; PLADs=provincial-level administrative divisions; TDS=Total Diet Study.The contributions of different food categories to total EDI of BPs are shown in Figure 2. The main dietary contributors for BPA were cereals (40.3%), water and beverage (17.4%) as well as vegetables (13.7%). As for BPS, the dominant contribution food groups were cereals (31.4%), followed by meats (25.4%), legumes (11.7%), vegetables (11.7%) and water and beverages (8.76%). Legumes (41.2%), meats (20.7%), and fruits (11.7%) were the top three contributors of BPF. Exposure to BPAF was mainly from cereals (22.6%), aquatic foods (21.5%) and vegetables (21.2%).
-
No conflicts of interest.
Food categories HL LN HE BJ JL SX SN HA NX NM QH GS SH FJ JX JS ZJ SD HB SC GX HN GD GZ Cereals 0.256 1.445 0.156 1.341 NDa 0.203 0.874 0.975 0.295 0.297 0.362 0.169 0.274 0.236 0.167 0.273 0.162 0.184 0.178 ND 0.256 1.445 0.156 1.341 Legumes ND 0.203 0.874 0.975 0.295 0.297 0.362 0.169 0.274 0.236 0.167 0.273 0.162 0.184 0.178 ND 0.207 ND 3.389 0.508 1.166 0.563 0.185 0.723 Potatoes 0.293 0.404 ND 0.219 0.698 0.239 0.187 0.636 0.212 0.185 1.352 0.271 0.271 0.274 0.277 0.222 0.206 0.233 0.29 0.294 0.249 0.474 0.215 0.393 Meat 0.213 5.815 0.383 0.356 0.453 1.104 0.175 1.737 0.228 0.784 3.629 1.665 0.926 0.249 ND 0.904 1.028 0.184 0.263 0.473 0.849 0.480 0.386 2.209 Eggs 0.207 0.544 0.453 ND ND ND 0.314 ND ND ND ND 0.246 0.286 ND 0.209 0.178 ND ND 0.251 0.177 ND 0.253 0.161 0.218 Aquatic foods 0.199 3.310 0.770 0.629 0.268 2.408 0.199 1.299 0.275 0.942 2.486 0.326 0.624 0.689 0.724 0.646 1.223 1.336 0.486 0.298 0.844 0.639 0.689 0.928 Milk 0.181 0.235 0.199 ND 0.025 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.153 ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.168 0.385 0.215 0.236 0.249 Vegetables 0.153 0.201 0.167 0.453 ND 0.284 1.088 0.347 0.19 0.478 0.231 0.243 0.19 0.296 0.285 0.303 0.575 0.291 0.193 0.326 0.311 0.336 0.387 0.936 Fruits 0.432 0.247 0.606 0.468 0.261 1.498 0.22 1.056 2.601 0.383 ND 1.428 0.405 0.260 0.176 20.001 0.154 0.545 0.481 0.245 7.933 0.18 0.542 ND Sugars 1.648 0.654 2.034 0.520 0.780 0.530 ND 0.784 0.197 3.256 1.066 1.516 0.252 0.543 0.387 ND 0.669 1.511 0.338 2.699 0.845 0.549 0.357 0.538 Water and beverages ND 0.168 ND ND ND ND ND 1.569 1.534 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.161 ND ND ND ND 0.763 ND Alcoholic beverages 0.209 0.188 ND ND 0.174 ND ND 0.403 0.356 0.610 ND ND ND ND ND 0.478 ND ND 0.159 ND ND ND ND 0.17 Note: ND: non-detected value, assigned 1/2 LOD in calculations.
Abbrreviations: HL=Heilongjiang; LN=Liaoning; HE=Hebei; BJ=Beijing; JL=Jilin; SX=Shanxi; SN=Shaanxi; HA=Henan; NX=Ningxia; NM=Inner Mongolia; QH=Qinghai; GS=Gansu; SH=Shanghai; FJ=Fujian; JX=Jiangxi; JS=Jiangsu; ZJ=Zhejiang; SD=Shandong; HB=Hubei; SC=Sichuan; GX=Gugangxi; HN=Hunan; GD=Guangdong; GZ=Guizhou; (the same below).Table S1. Levels of BPA in composites food samples from the Sixth China Total Diet Study (µg/kg).
Food categories HL LN HE BJ JL SX SN HA NX NM QH GS SH FJ JX JS ZJ SD HB SC GX HN GD GZ Cereals 0.129 0.316 1.983 0.068 ND 0.675 0.033 0.388 0.169 1.269 0.128 0.152 0.060 0.495 0.02 6.403 0.401 0.241 0.059 ND ND 0.032 ND 0.021 Legumes 1.213 1.408 1.045 0.031 0.025 0.074 1.169 0.160 2.543 1.639 0.021 0.466 0.304 3.145 ND 0.948 0.161 1.068 1.820 4.228 0.142 ND 1.907 0.076 Potatoes 0.106 0.243 0.161 0.029 ND 0.145 0.156 0.465 0.036 0.648 0.024 0.183 0.058 0.122 0.136 0.265 0.258 0.116 0.148 0.027 ND 0.201 0.154 0.208 Meat 0.203 8.638 6.669 ND ND 2.182 4.768 16.587 0.378 2.044 0.120 0.100 11.215 67.093 0.039 6.291 3.648 2.481 4.071 0.229 0.104 0.846 0.141 1.976 Eggs 0.073 0.044 0.619 0.314 0.025 0.029 ND 0.037 0.214 0.021 0.041 0.067 0.636 0.223 0.230 0.109 0.021 0.148 0.019 ND ND 0.074 0.028 0.022 Aquatic foods 2.159 0.598 6.344 0.743 0.091 1.921 1.501 2.622 0.026 0.757 1.506 0.131 4.586 3.127 0.023 0.509 0.087 0.644 1.621 0.369 0.034 0.427 ND 0.159 Milk 0.148 ND ND ND ND ND 0.052 ND 0.028 0.038 0.055 0.040 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.033 ND ND Vegetables 0.073 0.968 0.173 0.056 0.02 0.223 0.483 0.201 0.794 1.807 0.033 0.036 0.093 0.608 0.022 1.156 0.869 0.106 0.148 0.129 0.02 0.029 0.072 0.124 Fruits 0.071 1.598 0.534 0.053 0.048 0.122 0.465 0.523 0.100 1.714 0.032 0.171 0.169 0.329 0.099 0.347 0.058 0.256 0.624 0.030 0.100 0.039 0.026 0.050 Sugars 0.114 0.029 0.069 0.022 0.019 0.021 0.021 0.021 0.016 0.103 0.02 ND ND ND ND ND 0.028 0.055 0.019 0.058 0.106 ND ND 0.036 Water and beverages ND 0.612 0.075 0.054 ND ND 0.027 ND ND 0.026 0.059 0.019 0.268 0.018 0.02 0.099 ND ND ND ND 0.028 ND ND ND Alcoholic beverages 0.016 0.029 0.018 0.019 ND ND 0.019 0.02 0.083 ND ND 1.537 ND ND ND ND ND 0.018 0.029 ND 0.024 ND 0.030 ND Note: ND: non-detected value, assigned 1/2 LOD in calculations. Table S2. Levels of BPS in composites food samples from the Sixth China Total Diet Study (µg/kg).
Food categories HL LN HE BJ JL SX SN HA NX NM QH GS SH FJ JX JS ZJ SD HB SC GX HN GD GZ Cereals ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.169 Legumes ND 0.184 ND 0.163 ND 0.444 0.383 ND ND ND ND 0.624 ND ND ND 0.288 ND 0.163 ND 0.192 1.064 ND ND ND Potatoes ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.186 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Meat ND ND ND 0.261 ND ND ND ND 0.205 0.279 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.168 0.209 ND ND Eggs ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Aquatic foods 0.169 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.192 ND Milk ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Vegetables ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.16 ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.190 ND ND ND Fruits 0.169 ND 0.156 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.449 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Sugars 0.26 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Water and beverages ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Alcoholic beverages ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Note: ND: non-detected value, assigned 0 in calculations. Table S3. Levels of BPF in composites food samples from the Sixth China Total Diet Study (µg/kg).
Food categories HL LN HE BJ JL SX SN HA NX NM QH GS SH FJ JX JS ZJ SD HB SC GX HN GD GZ Cereals ND ND ND 0.026 ND ND ND 0.015 ND ND ND ND 0.129 0.040 ND ND ND ND 0.02 0.015 ND ND 0.051 ND Legumes ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Potatoes ND 0.024 0.029 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.016 0.019 0.018 0.018 ND ND ND ND ND 0.018 ND Meat ND 0.530 ND 0.019 ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.024 0.018 ND 0.015 ND ND 0.021 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Eggs ND ND 0.030 0.038 0.017 ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.025 0.02 0.020 0.019 ND ND 0.017 0.2 ND ND 0.029 0.061 0.02 Aquatic foods ND 0.025 0.02 0.027 ND 0.015 0.017 ND ND 0.016 0.019 0.025 0.053 0.017 0.026 ND 0.026 0.044 0.796 0.029 0.029 1.751 0.022 0.025 Milk ND ND 0.015 ND ND ND 0.026 ND ND ND 0.016 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Vegetables 0.041 0.036 ND 0.024 0.023 0.018 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.02 0.026 ND 0.029 ND ND 0.023 ND Fruits 0.021 ND ND 0.021 ND 0.018 ND 0.015 ND ND 0.018 0.092 ND ND ND ND 0.025 0.052 0.175 0.108 ND ND ND ND Sugars 0.036 ND 0.02 ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.043 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.021 ND 0.02 ND ND ND ND Water and beverages ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Alcoholic beverages ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Note: ND: non-detected value, assigned 0 in calculations. Table S4. Levels of BPAF in composites food samples from the Sixth China Total Diet Study (µg/kg).
Compound The Fourth TDS 2007 The Fifth TDS 2010−2012 The Sixth TDS (this study) 2016−2019 BPA 43 217 18.1 BPS − 25.6 22.2 BPF − 25.1 0.485 BPAF − 0.499 0.384 Note: “−” means not detected.
Abbrreviations: BPA=bisphenol A; BPS=bisphenol S; BPF=bisphenol F; BPAF=bisphenol AF; TDS=Total Diet Studys.Table S5. Estimated BPA and its analogues exposures in three Total Diet Studys (ng/kg body weight per day).
HTML
Citation: |